Professional Communication in Nursing for Principles of Care

Question: Talk about the Professional Communication in Nursing for Principles of Care. Answer: Presentation Correspondence is a strategy used to pass data and translate importance in our regular day to day existence. It is the trading of message between people. There are various techniques for correspondence including talking, tuning, recorded as a hard copy and perusing; which are all types of verbal correspondence. Likewise, signals, non-verbal communication and artworks are different strategies for going across data; these are non-verbal techniques for correspondence. Much the same as social discussions are significant, remedial discussions as they help assemble connections between the medical attendants and the patients. Remedial correspondence is a common connection between these two gatherings during which the medical caretakers major on the specific needs of their patients and advance an efficacious sharing of data (Arnold and Boggs, 2011). The medical caretakers utilize helpful relational abilities as they endeavor to give new messages, right deception and lift patients comprehensi on of their medical issues, ask into alternatives for care, help patients to settle on decisions and advance the prosperity of patients. The substance of remedial correspondence is to proffer the patients an opportunity to see the implied importance of their sickness and fathoming and offering data and enthusiastic help that every patient needs to accomplish level best wellbeing (Webb, 2011). Accordingly, corrective correspondence is not at all like social connections. Foundation Information Medical caretakers speak with the patients and their relatives so as to accomplish reverential consideration and great consequences of patient consideration. Correspondence empowers the medical attendants to think about the patients analyzed malady as well as, each need and feature of the customers they connect with. Arnold and Boggs (2011) place that logical information isn't the main order in the nursing calling. Significantly more is of quintessence including scholarly, relational and specialized aptitudes and capacities. As per the Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (2014), proficient correspondence is a fundamental factor in all parts of nursing care and especially, it is an essential component in practically all the nursing intercessions including treatment, treatment, anticipation, instruction, recovery and advancement of wellbeing. In addition, the healthy work of thinking about the debilitated is accomplished through a relational situation, through exchange and further more with conclusive aptitudes of both non-verbal and verbal correspondence (Webb, 2011). There exists some dispute between the to some degree low level of patient satisfaction and the daedal nursing calling and a definitive result of the nursing procedure is an issue that has been seen across numerous countries in the whole globe (Kozier et al., 2014). Research has demonstrated that this wonder comes because of a poor customer nurture relational correspondence process. In this way, as Webb (2011) watches, an excellent medical attendant customer correspondence is basic for the palatable result of singularized minding of every customer. Contaminate, Dallas and Dawsonera (2010) note that to achieve this, proficient medical caretakers are strongly prescribed to above all else comprehend and from that point help their customers exhibiting truthfulness, civility and goodness. Medical caretakers ought to devote time for correspondence with their customers, maintaining the imperative privacy. Postulation articulation: Appropriate correspondence methods empower the medical caretakers to manufacture helpful associations with patients which add to the all encompassing consideration and ideal patient results. This paper will feature the idea of expert correspondence in nursing and its significance in accomplishing individual focused consideration and powerful documentation. Situation: This exposition utilizes the instance of a male patient, R. N., 63 years of age. He gripes around a couple of medical problems. He is anxious to better his wellbeing by participating in normal exercise, right consuming less calories and change of way of life. Individual Centered Care As a standard, individual focused consideration gives a suspicion that the attendant would work with the patients viewpoint of their own circumstance, notwithstanding that which is demonstrated by a clinical finding (Kozier et al., 2014). In accordance with this, from the reference case above, it is apparent that R. Ns most noteworthy intrigue is to improve his wellbeing through customary physical movement, right eating less junk food and meaning of positive changes to his present lifestyle. On this respect, as a key constituent in the different models previously structured by nurture academicians to help the medical caretakers who practice to apply individual focused consideration, the attendant to who N. R introduced himself ought to become more acquainted with him separately. Furthermore, the attendant should be as responsive as conceivable as he gives beneficial consideration including giving N. R guidance on sound abstaining from excessive food intake, standard practicing and general solid living. For example, much the same as he makes time to spend time with his girl, grandkids and companions, the medical caretaker ought to request that he attempt and discover time for ordinary physical action. What's more, on eating less junk food, he can send him to see an enrolled dietician. The medical attendant should regard N. Rs needs, inclinations and qualities like for this situation, religion; N. R is a Buddhist. The medical caretaker should attempt to encourage trusting providing care relations, giving a great deal of accentuation on his opportunity of decision. For example, the medical caretaker can praise him for stopping smoking and maybe offer him with the alternative of nicotine substitution treatment in light of the fact that the patient reports on mis sing not having his cigarettes. Another proper exhortation would be cutting on his liquor admission. In the event that conceivable, the medical caretaker ought to include N. Rs little girl and grandkids as would be fitting. By doing this, the medical attendant would show the amount he regards N. Rs most grounded interests as far as he can tell wellbeing and needs as the patient. Doing this would make N. R see himself as being cardinal in the nursing and caring procedure. As per the Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (2014), the selection of honest individual focused consideration is a significant perceptible marvel by and by of expert nursing While Lloyd, Hancock and Campbell (2011) call attention to that this standard requests abilities and unintentionally the open intentions of the medical attendant to make sense of what the worry of the patient is, Arnold Boggs (2011) concur with their line of thought when they note that it isn't sufficiently adequate to just comprehend the customer passing on a satisfactory message similarly fundamental. This standard contemplates that there is an emphasis on the contact between the medical caretaker and the patient in the bound together restorative procedure. Viable Documentation Postulation: Different records utilized over the nursing care plan play an indispensable capacity in going across data essential to the present and nonstop consideration of patients. It is fundamental in building a restorative connection between the attendants and the patients. At the point when the correspondence job of documentation upsets the transport of data and, advances the overflowing of overflow occasions which collect to understanding wellbeing bargain and perhaps adverse patient viewpoints accordingly; poor remedial relationship. These reports additionally fill in as legitimate records. Situation: As a record or report of exercises encompassing nursing care and, as a method of building a corrective relationship, N. Rs documentation would incorporate his clinical record remembering change for his ailment, the organization of any clinical tests, methods, treatment of basic conditions and patient training with his reaction to every one of them. N. Rs documentation would likewise incorporate his reaction to any proposed intercession, an examination of the anticipated outcome and any disappointment from him or his family. It would likewise contain a lawful record which ensures him as well as the specialist and the establishment. As per the Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (2014), the rule of powerful documentation has advanced as an end result to the proportions of the act of medication, administrative and legitimate guidelines, institutional arrangements and standards of the general public. In accordance with this, Kangasniemi, Pakkanen and Korhonen (2015) concu r that successful documentation is necessary in building a restorative relationship. End In synopsis, correspondence in itself is an essential trait of human instinct. It does the trick to state that correspondence is consistently unidirectional. As an essential piece of the longstanding making of Hippocratic clinical science, correspondence isn't just settled on the essential capacity that changes from one individual to the next yet it depends on the imperative preparing and the procured understanding during ones vocation (Kozier et al., 2014). The resultant result of this is a demonstration of significant comprehension of the customers with higher increase to them and, with singular happiness to the medical caretaker for having worked admirably. Besides, proficient correspondence improves the consideration given to the patients. Besides, it is deliberately weighed as a non-debatable right and a prerequisite for building up a true blue connection between the medical caretakers and the patients not barring different experts in the wellbeing segment (Speziale Carpenter, 2 011). References Arnold, E., Boggs, K. U. (2011). Relational connections: Professional relational abilities for medical attendants. St. Louis, Mo: Elsevier/Saunders. Consumes, N., Grove, S. K. (2010). Understanding Nursing Research-eBook: Building an Evidence-Based Practice. Spot of distribution not distinguished. Kangasniemi, M., Pakkanen, P., Korhonen, A. (2015). Proficient morals in nursing: an integrative review.Journal of cutting edge nursing,71(8), 1744-1757. Kozier, B., Erb, G. L., Berman, A., Snyder, S., Levett-Jones, T., Dwyer, T. (2014). Kozier and Erbs Fundamentals of Nursing Volumes 1-3 Australian Edition eBook. Melbourne: P.Ed Australia. Lloyd, H., Hancock, H., Campbell, S. (2011). Indispensable Notes for Nu

Instance Variables in Ruby

Example Variables in Ruby Case factors start with an at sign () and can be referenced distinctly inside class techniques. They vary from neighborhood factors in that they dont exist inside a specific extension. Rather, a comparative variable table is put away for each example of a class. Occurrence factors live inside a class example, so as long as that case remains alive, so will the occasion factors. Occurrence factors can be referenced in any technique for that class. All techniques for a class utilize a similar example variable table, rather than neighborhood factors where every strategy will have an alternate variable table. It is conceivable to get to example factors without first characterizing them, notwithstanding. This won't raise a special case, yet the factors worth will be nil and an admonition will be given if youve run Ruby with the - w switch. This model exhibits the utilization of occasion factors. Note that the kit n kaboodle contains the - w switch, which will print alerts should they happen. Additionally, note the wrong utilization outside of a technique in the class scope. This is off base and examined beneath. #!/usr/receptacle/env ruby - wclass TestClass # Incorrect! test monkey def introduce esteem 1337 end def print_value # OK puts esteem end def uninitialized # Technically OK, creates cautioning puts monkey endendt TestClass.newt.print_valuet.uninitialized For what reason is the test variable mistaken? This has to do with extension and how Ruby executes things. Inside a strategy, the case variable degree alludes to the specific example of that class. Be that as it may, in the class scope (inside the class, however outside of any strategies), the extension is the class example scope. Ruby actualizes the class chain of importance by launching Class objects, so there is a second occasion influencing everything here. The primary occurrence is a case of the class, and this is the place test will go. The subsequent occasion is the launch of TestClass, and this is the place worth will go. This gets somewhat befuddling, yet simply make sure to never utilize instance_variables outside of techniques. On the off chance that you need class-wide capacity, use class_variables, which can be utilized anyplace in the class scope (inside or outside of strategies) and will carry on the equivalent. Accessors You ordinarily can't get to occasion factors from outside of an article. For example, in the above model, you can't just call t.value or t.value to get to the occurrence variable worth. This would defy the norms of exemplification. This additionally applies to occasions of kid classes, they can't get to case factors having a place with the parent class despite the fact that theyre actually a similar kind. Thus, so as to give access to case factors, accessor strategies must be announced. The accompanying model shows how accessor techniques can be composed. In any case, note that Ruby gives an easy route and that this model just exists to give you how the accessor strategies work. Its by and large not basic to see accessor strategies written along these lines except if an extra rationale is required for the accessor. #!/usr/container/env rubyclass Student def initialize(name,age) name, age name, age end # Name peruser, expect name cannot change def name end # Age peruser and author def age end def age(age) age endendalice Student.new(Alice, 17)# Its Alices birthdayalice.age 1puts Happy birthday #{alice.name}, youre now #{alice.age} years old! The alternate ways make things somewhat simpler and progressively conservative. There are three of these aide strategies. They should be run in the class scope (inside the class however outside of any techniques), and will powerfully characterize strategies much like the techniques characterized in the above model. Theres no enchantment going on here, and they look like language watchwords, yet they truly are simply powerfully characterizing strategies. Likewise, these accessors commonly go at the highest point of the class. That gives the peruser a moment diagram of which part factors will be accessible outside the class or to youngster classes. There are three of these accessor techniques. They each take a rundown of images portraying the case factors to be gotten to. attr_reader - Define peruser techniques, for example, the name strategy in the above example.attr_writer - Define author strategies, for example, the age technique in the above example.attr_accessor - Define both peruser and essayist strategies. #!/usr/canister/env rubyclass Student attr_reader :name attr_accessor :age def initialize(name,age) name, age name, age endendalice Student.new(Alice, 17)# Its Alices birthdayalice.age 1puts Happy birthday #{alice.name}, youre now #{alice.age} years old! When to utilize Instance Variables Since you realize what example factors are, when do you use them? Case factors ought to be utilized when they speak to the condition of the article. An understudies name and age, their evaluations, and so on. They shouldnt be utilized for transitory capacity, that is the thing that neighborhood factors are for. Be that as it may, they might be utilized for transitory capacity between strategy calls for multi-stage calculations. Notwithstanding if youre doing this, you might need to reexamine your strategy piece and make these factors into technique parameters.

2015 Wait List Decisions - UGA Undergraduate Admissions

2015 Wait List Decisions - UGA Undergraduate Admissions 2015 Wait List Decisions Today we offered admission to about 90 or so students from the Wait List. We admitted a small number of students for Fall admission, but the majority of students admitted off the Wait List were offered admission for the Spring 2016 term. We will email this news to the students and give information about their two-week Commitment Deposit deadline, campus housing, Orientation and other pre-enrollment steps. In addition, the myStatus page will be updated after about 5:30 p.m. EST today to show these decisions, and a decision letter will be mailed soon. Over the next few days, we plan to email the rest of the wait-listed students to inform them that we cannot offer them admission off the Wait List, and we will then update their Status Check one final time. If your myStatus decision has not changed, it means that no offer of admission was able to be made due to projected enrollment numbers being met. In reviewing the students who we admitted off the Wait List, there were a variety of individual reasons for the offers that were made. As such, I cannot give an overarching reason for the decisions. We did take into account our earlier reviews of the files, along with a wide range of information that we had on hand. For those many strong students we were not able to admit from the Wait List, we thank you for choosing us as one of the options for your higher education. We wish you the very best of college success. We understand that this is not the news you were hoping for, and we very much appreciate your patience “waiting on the Wait List.” Please remember that there are a number of complex reasons why the University made the final decisions it did, and we respectfully remind all that this blog cannot be used for comments about why you or other individuals did or did not get admitted in the Wait list process. We hope that our quick turn around of the Wait List situation has allowed you and your family to make plans on a much earlier time frame that initially projected.

Migrating to Miami from Nigeria The Nigerian Culture Essay

Name of culture observed: Nigerian Communication Behavior Observations (time 1) Personal observations 1: After migrating to Miami to further my education, I realized it was a very diverse place. I met many different people of different cultures and have made new friendships. I met a Nigerian woman during my time here and we have become friends. Being around her, I was able to observe and note her behaviors for this project. She is very driven and motivated. She recently shared with me that she has studied pharmacy and is now studying fashion. She works part time in a local pharmacy. This is very important to her as she is helping her husband provide for the family. Before, it was only him taking care of the finances. She shared with me†¦show more content†¦Hierarchy in an organization is seen as reflecting inherent inequalities, centralization is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. Masculinity-femininity: Nigeria scores 60 on this dimension and is thus a masculine society. In masculine countries people â€Å"live in order to work†, managers are expected to be decisive and assertive, the emphasis is on equity, competition and performance and conflicts are resolved by fighting them out. Other observations 2: My Nigerian friend has a young child who is not able to walk on his own yet. I noticed that she carries her child on her back. The child would be carried by fastening a broad cloth or fabric which is tied around the baby and fastened at her bosom. When the baby fusses, she would fasten him to her this way and walk around the house doing her regular household chores, even when she is prepping to cook. I observe that children are very important to them and the relationship between mother and child is very strong. I realize that Nigerians regard newborns with a high pride because they represent the community and the family’s future. Being invited to the home of a Nigerian, I am immediately offered food. She likes to entertain in her own household and finds it rude not to offer a guest or friend something to eat. I was asked to remove my shoes at the door before coming in. Though the main language is English, she speaks tribal languages fromShow MoreRelatedRa stafarian79520 Words   |  319 PagesRastafari This page intentionally left blank Rastafari From Outcasts to Culture Bearers Ennis Barrington Edmonds 2003 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the Universitys objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala

Management Functions - 1036 Words

20 April 2013 Rebecca Fuller How Your Managers Can Contribute to Organisational Performance The ‘Four Management’ Functions * Contents Page 1.0 Introduction Pg. 2 2.0 Management Functions Pg. 3 3.0 Example 1 – RedBalloon Pg. 4 4.0 Example 2 – Best Buys Pg. 5 5.0 Conclusion Pg. 6 6.0 Bibliography Pg. 7 * 1.0 Introduction This report attempts to evaluate the ways in which managers can contribute to organisational performance. It uses the works of Henri Fayol and the ‘four management functions’ and considers how two companies; RedBalloon and Best Buys may use these in their organisation. The Oxford Dictionary (2013) deï ¬ nes a Manager as a person responsible†¦show more content†¦Such changes to a long standing large-scale company shows that the four management functions all would have been utilised. However we will look at the remaining two that have not been yet covered in the previous example; Planning and Leading. Best Buys changing their daily function from flexible ROWE to full in office work days highlights the use of defining organisational goals and strategies, coordinating daily activities and setting benchmarks for employees which will help the organisation monitor and evaluate efficiency. Best Buy management will need to continue to keep team members efficiently meeting their performance benchmarks just as they did when it was a ROWE. Now that the team members will be in the ofï ¬ ce in a more structured set of hours it seems that the management personnel will have a greater opportunity to be leaders in their day to day role. Management may ï ¬ nd that they will utilise their conï ¬â€šict resolution skills more now all the employees with be working in office for longer periods. Also the communication channels that may have been effective in the past with the old working conditions may not suit the new one. * 5.0 Conclusion There are manyShow MoreRelatedManagement Functions And Functions Of Management1304 Words   |  6 Pages Essay Management is viewed as a critical part in any business or corporate commercial enterprises. Group assignments provide a useful platform for understanding the management functions that consist of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling (POLC). I totally do agree with this statement. Management of groups is actually the key to all of these P-O-L-C functions. Any management can accomplish and succeed objectives through the organizing execution of these four functions (123helpme.comRead MoreManagement Functions And Functions Of Management Essay1529 Words   |  7 PagesAssessing Management Functions List the four functions of management and provide an overview of their purpose for the organization. The four functions of management are planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. The planning function establishes a way to attain the desired objectives, resolve issues and facilitate action. The purpose of the planning function is to align the vision, culture, employees and the organizational structure with the strategies, and this involves multiple levels acrossRead MoreManagement Functions And Functions Of Management860 Words   |  4 Pages Essay Management is viewed as a critical part in any business or corporate commercial enterprises. Group assignments provide a useful platform for understanding the management functions that consist of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling (POLC). I totally do agree with this statement. Management of groups is actually the key to all of these P-O-L-C functions. Any management can accomplish and succeed objectives through the organizing execution of these four functions (123helpme.comRead MoreFunctions And Functions Of Management1113 Words   |  5 Pagesprimary functions involving management, which are considered the very life line and it’s existent. These four functions are instrumental and detrimental to the success and longevity of any company. Without these vital staples, a company is doomed before it is birth, and they are planning, organizing, leading and controlling. However, there is another essential component to the functions of management, and it is the importan t of diversity. In this paper I will identify the detailed function of theseRead MoreManagement Functions And Functions Of Management812 Words   |  4 Pagesinclude problem solving, facilitating meetings, and many other routine office tasks. Management is the process of working with people and resources to accomplish organizational goals. Good managers do those things both effectively and efficiently. (Bateman Snell, 2004) However many of these tasks should not be duplicated by a group of individuals. Different people can take on parts of the management function. Someone on a team can take care of the planning, while another person does the budgetingRead MoreFunctions And Functions Of Management Functions995 Words   |  4 PagesManagement functions are defined as â€Å"the ways that managers are grouped within an organisation to achieve specialist tasks† and refer to specific areas of practice that involve only a small group of managers who, usually, need particular training or experience and belong to relevant professional organisations. There are five major functions in most organisations known as â€Å"big five† (Smith, 2011): marketing, concerned with promoting and distributing products; operations, which involves the transformationRead MoreFunctions And Functions Of Management1119 Words   |  5 PagesUnderstand the role, functions and processes of management Management is the act of engaging with an organisation s human talent and using the physical resources at a manager s disposal to accomplish desired goals and objectives (set by the stakeholders of the organisation) efficiently and effectively. Management comprises of planning, organising, staffing, leading, directing, and controlling an organisation (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishingRead MoreManagement Functions And Functions Of Management1823 Words   |  8 Pagesuse of available resources. A manager performs the basic functions of management, which are planning, controlling, organising, staffing and leading to accomplish the goals of the organisation (Drucker Maciariello, 2008). Organisational performance is largely dependent on the quality of leadership established by the managers. A manager has particular leadership qualities that make them effective in execution of their duties. Management refers to the process of coordinating the activities of aRead MoreManagement And Functions Of Management1063 Words   |  5 PagesManagement in business and associations is the capacity that facilitates the endeavors of individuals to achieve objectives and targets utilizing accessible assets proficiently and adequately. Management includes planning, arranging, staffing, heading or steering, and controlling an association to achieve the objective. Resourcing includes the arrangement and control of human assets, budgetary assets, innovative assets, and regular assets. Administration is additionally a scholarly teach, a socialRead MoreManagement Functions1016 Words   |  5 PagesManagement Functions Contents Page Introduction 1 Forecasting 2 Planning 3 Organisation 4 Control 5 Co-ordination 6 Communication 7 Motivation 8 Conclusion 9 References 10 Introduction Henri Fayol was one of the most influential contributors to modern concepts of management. His career began as a mining engineer, later moving into research geology for Comambault. The company was struggling however, Fayol

Academic Joint Ventures And Business Aspects Education Essay Free Essays

As with any concern partnership between an U.S. corporation and a Latin American corporation, universities that spouse to offer academic plans must see the fiscal and operational facets of such partnerships. We will write a custom essay sample on Academic Joint Ventures And Business Aspects Education Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now This paper deals with international partnerships between universities as research labs for coaction between concerns. The elements that make for a successful articulation venture go beyond the academic issues of content and how that content is delivered to pupils. This paper deals with the concern and inter-university relationships in developing and implementing articulation or collaborative grade plans between universities. It does non cover with traditional exchange plans or double grade plans where one of the universities is the dominant establishment at which the pupils really earn the grade. ; instead the coaction here deals with the joint development and offering of course of study by the establishments as equal spouses that leads to the awarding of a joint or collaborative grade. Regis University, founded in 1877, is one of 28 Jesuit universities in the United States. The university enrolls more than 16,000 pupils who study at its Denver, Colorado campus, seven other regional campuses and on-line via distance acquisition. The University has developed relationships with the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland, the National University of Ireland in Galway, Ireland, and ITESO in Guadalajara, Mexico every bit good as other relationships with schools in other parts of the universe. This paper concentrates on the relationships with the Ulster, Galway and ITESO for intents of the research theoretical account. The University of Ulster is the major university in Northern Ireland and is portion of the higher educational system in the United Kingdom. Ulster is similar to Regis University in that both have multiple campus that serve diverse populations and both have extended on-line educational plans. The National University of Ireland in Galway is involved in extended educational partnerships throughout Europe and in Asia every bit good as supplying extended go oning instruction grade plans for working grownups within the state. ITESO, located in Guadalajara, Mexico, is a Jesuit university as is Regis University. ITESO offers a important figure of academic and go oning professional development plans for working grownups and via its distance instruction scheduling. ITESO participates in an extended web of schools throughout North and Latin America every bit good as in Europe and Asia. Literature The educational literature has a great trade of research refering the traditional pupil exchange plans between international universities every bit good as survey abroad, and double grade plans, yet there is small about the development and operation of jointly developed and operated degree plans. The double grade plans in the literature be given to be coactions where one of the universities offers the grade ( typically the U.S. spouse ) and the other school provides pupils. In many instances these double grade plans allow the pupils of either school to reassign a specific figure of classs into the other grade and to take classs at each school. But the pupils are normally considered degree seeking at the dominant spouse in the relationship. What needs to be looked at is how we develop and guarantee that both the U.S. school and the school in the other state is a full and equal spouse in the coaction. One such partnership that seems to signal such a alteration is the joint partnership between the British Council and the state of Brazil. In an article depicting this partnership Canto and Hannah ( 2001 ) stated that â€Å" ( vitamin E ) quality in the proviso of financess has a practical and symbolic significance aˆÂ ¦ , meaning that this is a coaction that sets out to replace traditional north-south relationships of giver and receiver with echt academic partnerships † ( P. 27. ) What the writers were seeking to state and what seems to be needed in developing such international coactions is that there is a demand for common regard and engagement where both organisations bring similar or complementary accomplishments and resources to the tabular array as opposed to the traditional theoretical account which typic ally has the U.S. or European university supplying the existent educational chances at the U.S. school with the bulk of the pupils coming from the other state. What their paper efforts to make is analyze the relationship between the U.S. school and the Latin American school in a different visible radiation. Canto and Hannah ( 2001 ) paraphrased Altbach ( 1981 ) in which Altbach commented on the quandary 3rd universe universities so had in deriving acknowledgment even though academic public presentation and research in the 3rd universe had improved greatly over the old ages since World War II. It seems that the perceptual experience was that the establishments in the U.S. and Europe have the monopoly on cognition and the 3rd universe is in demand of that cognition. Such attitudes continue and have limited cooperation and coaction. Canto and Hannah believe that since the late 1970 ‘s schools in the U.S. and Europe have entered into horizontal partnerships that include three elements: â€Å" ( a ) the being of old cognition of the other spouse to set up realistic outlooks † which came from Samoilovich ‘s work in the 1990 â⠂¬Ëœs, â€Å" ( B ) the echt sharing of each other ‘s experiences † which they got from work done by Balan in the 1990 ‘s, and â€Å" ( degree Celsius ) the application of each other ‘s cognition instead than a one-way transportation † of cognition from the dominant school, which came from work done by Bor and Shute in the 1990 ‘s. ( 2001, P. 32. ) Some issues identified by Canto and Hannah ( 2001 ) include: holding a clear apprehension of each spouse ‘s strengths and failings, holding a great trade of trust in each other, low degrees of struggle an equal partnership where both spouses are respected for what each brings to the relationship, acknowledging that linguistic communication can be a barrier, and holding regard for each school ‘s cultural differences. Canto and Hannah ( 2001 ) besides looked at three links that need to be considered. These are linguistics, sociology, and engineering. Each of these demands to be considered when developing a partnership where both schools play an equal function in developing the academic course of study and be aftering the concern theoretical account for operations. This was re-enforced by Shaw ( 2006 ) who speaks to the importance of understanding political environments in each state every bit good as within each establishment involved in the partnership. He farther commented that the â€Å" ( s ) tability of a joint venture refers to the length of service of the relationship, and it is dependent, in portion, upon the combination and communicating between theaˆÂ ¦partners † ( P. 439. ) Shaw ( 2006 ) besides identified barriers that must be considered in developing partnerships in the academic sphere. These tend to back up what Canto and Hannah ( 2001 ) noted in their research. Shaw spoke to fiscal support, division of work and control, struggle, cultural differences, and environmental factors ( P. 442. ) An interesting fact is that international joint ventures have declined in figure over the past decennary ( Popper, 2002 ) and while Popper is talking by and large about transnational companies, she notes that much of the diminution is because the spouses have different involvements. Popper ‘s remarks tend to back up the treatment above refering issues to be alert about when developing coactions between U.S. or European universities and their opposite numbers in Latin America. Chowdhury and Chowdhury ( 2002 ) remark that it is of import to develop â€Å" synergism among the spouse houses ( P. 52. ) They further speak to the symmetric houses holding an inducement for organizing the partnership in the demand to increase demand ( p. 57. ) If this is translated into an educational partnership, so the end may good be to increase demand for higher instruction in one or both states – or at least the demand for an instruction from the spouse schools. Finally Nadler and Nadler ( 1990 ) speak to the demand to see the homo resource demands in joint ventures. They commented that â€Å" the fluctuation in cultural norms from state to state should be recognized and understood † ( p. 71 ) when sing human resource issues. Each spouse may hold different accomplishments and cognition to impart to the coaction and this needs to be understood and planned for. Nadler and Nadler farther noted that both spouses in a joint venture must understand that each spouse may miss some human resources capacity and that may necessitate to be developed. Lessons Learned from Regis University and its Spouses Relationship Building The literature clearly noted that one of the keys to success with international collaborative ventures is the development of relationships ( Canto A ; Hannah, 2001, Shaw, 2006, Popper, 2002, Chowdhury and Chowdhury, 2002, and Nadler A ; Nadler, 1990. ) Based on an analysis of the international coactions between Regis University, Denver, Colorado and the three international spouses introduced before, relationship edifice likely is foremost in those elements that ensured success and when non to the full developed, resulted in failure. Prior to get downing to develop any academic plans with ITESO in Guadalajara and the National University of Ireland in Galway ( NUIG ) both schools spent considerable clip acquiring to cognize each other. In the instance of NUIG the partnership began with senior functionaries at both schools meeting through a 3rd party and so merely researching possible chances over a twosome of old ages. The same occurred with ITESO. Representatives of both schools foremost met through a conference sponsored by AJCU and AUSCAL in Guadalajara and so about a twelvemonth subsequently at an IAJBS educational conference. That led to farther contacts and visits. During these meetings and societal contacts, both parties got to cognize the people and their civilizations, and developed a trusting relationship. In the first instance, these contacts led to the formation of a joint Irish Studies plan online between NUIG and Regis University. The plan was designed to be little in order to develop a working relat ionship and has continued. Later that plan led to the development and execution of an on-line alumnus grade in package technology. The relationship at ITESO resulted in execution of a joint MBA grade where pupils from both schools can gain an extra grade from each by taking nucleus classs at the place establishment and so a series of classs at the other. This relationship is now leting ITESO and Regis University to look at traveling into a jointly offered grade for the remainder of Latin America. An illustration of a plan that likely failed because the relationship was non adequately developed before seeking to implement a plan was the joint MS grade in International Management between Regis University and the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland. Here the determination to travel forward was made really rapidly by the top decision makers in each school. No clip was allowed for the module of each university to acquire to cognize each other and work together before planning. This resulted in miscommunications about course of study, policies, civilization in each state and the schools themselves, every bit good as other administrative issues. When the Numberss of pupils did non happen in the beginning, it was easy to merely end the understanding. Relationship edifice in any concern venture is critical to the success of the venture. In higher instruction it may be even more of import since the success of the joint venture or coaction depends on people wholly. The strength of the Regis-NUIG relationship is a personal 1 between a twosome of persons at each establishment that has led to other personal relationships between module and staff at each school. While there is a common linguistic communication, there are still differences in civilization and model. ITESO is a Jesuit university as is Regis University so there was an bing bond, yet it was the development of the personal relationships between module and staff at both schools that ensured a successful partnership. Fiscal Issues Fiscal issues can be a deal-breaker if non handled suitably in any joint venture, but possibly even more so when working across international boundary lines. The development of a strong trusting relationship will assist both spouses work through struggles that may originate refering who contributes what fiscal and physical resources and how disbursals are accounted for. The relationship with ITESO was assisted by a grant from the First Data/Western Union foundation that provided monies to make some conferences in Mexico for civil sector workers and organisations with ITESO and others taking a leading function in Mexico. The grant besides provided dollars to get down be aftering a certification ( sheepskin ) plan in the civil sector country and for conveying some module from ITESO to Regis during the summer intensives the University holds each twelvemonth. From this get downing the concern and direction modules began speaking about the joint MBA construct which subsequently developed into the current offering between the two schools. There are a figure of ways to develop the concern program that can impact the fiscal resources needed for the successful execution of the collaborative attempt. One theoretical account is to merely hold each school wage for its ain costs and so split the grosss generated. This avoids the job of finding methods for apportioning disbursals. Each establishment decides what budgetary disbursals should be included in the undertaking. It may besides avoid the job of costs at one location being more or less than the other. One disadvantage may be that the theoretical account relies on each to equitably back up the operational disbursals. If the coaction is online there likely needs to be some expression for the on-line production and hosting of the classs. Sharing the grosss besides has advantages and disadvantages. It does presume that there is some equity in the Numberss of pupils recruited by each spouse ; otherwise, it is possible one school is lending more than the other. A 2nd theoretical account is to still hold each school budget its ain disbursals, but have each school keep the grosss it generates through its ain recruiting attempts. This theoretical account might include each school counterbalancing the other when a pupil takes a class ( s ) from the other school. Or each school merely keeps the gross it generates. The advantage to this theoretical account is that it is clear and each school is individually at hazard. The disadvantage is that presuming costs are equal in most instances, one school may bring forth more gross than the other one and therefore the partnership might be uneven. A 3rd theoretical account is to develop a individual agreed upon budget and so apportion costs based on what services and resources are provided by each establishment. It follows that grosss would besides be allocated on a similar expression. This theoretical account ensures that each school is accountable to the whole since each has a interest in the result. Like the old theoretical account the challenge will be to maintain some kind of para in the relationship. Costss for such coactions include: selling and recruiting disbursals, production costs for online development, module and staff costs, aggregations disbursals and other administrative operating expense, and start-up disbursals. Depending on the size of the coaction these can be rather dearly-won to each organisation. Each of these will be dealt with in assorted subdivisions of the paper to follow. Another component of fundss to believe about is the international pecuniary exchange rate and how that is calculated. Historically, the exchange has been based on the U.S. dollar, but in the current economic environment the fluctuation in exchange rates takes on an importance that may non hold been at that place in the yesteryear. If the two schools portion grosss, it can be debatable finding at what point the exchange rate is fixed. Along with the exchange rate is the inquiry of whose currency payments are made in. Each spouse may be bear downing tuition in its ain currency which makes it hard to find if the charges to pupils are tantamount. Such dialogues have had important impacts on the coactions between Regis University and its spouses. The coaction with NUIG requires each spouse to budget its ain disbursals, nevertheless, there is a expression for points such as selling disbursals and some overhead that vary between states. In Europe it is common to non bear down pupils for required texts and to utilize other beginnings, while in the U.S. pupils typically pay for their ain books and more frequently than non text editions are required. How do the spouses determine an just manner of covering with these differences? Both Regis and NUIG agreed on a expression for dividing the grosss earned from pupil tuitions ; of class, during the first few old ages at that place have ever been minor dialogues as to how that works at the terminal of the twelvemonth when the transportation of monies occurs. With the coaction with ITESO, the current undertaking has each school responsible for its ain disbursals including selling and enli sting. Each school besides charges its ain tuition for all classs in the plan and so each spouse compensates the other for those classs taken at the spouse school by its pupils. However, ITESO and Regis University came to an understanding on what the tuition would be for this plan. Compensation for pupils taking classs at the other spouse is in that school ‘s currency. For the Ulster venture, the allotment was more complicated and included negociating all disbursals and costs every bit good as the tuition rate. Each school shared in the budget based on a negotiated expression. This proved to be slightly dissentious. If either establishment is come ining the understanding with the purpose of functioning 1000s of pupils and doing important net incomes they will probably be disappointed. While larning from one another and come ining markets that might hold been out of range are surely worthwhile and come-at-able ends, doing more than a modest net income is non. The financials developed prior to come ining the understanding between Regis University and Ulster promised tremendous net income. The failure of this net income to happen was one more nail in the casket of that venture. One lesson learned was that maintaining it every bit simple as possible is in the best involvement of both spouses. While the ITESO coaction merely late the purpose has been that this theoretical account will ensue in a better direction procedure for disbursals. Merchandise Development Here we speak in footings of course of study development every bit good as production of online classs. It is likely that occupants in each state or part of the universe will hold different demands and desires when it comes to the course of study, how that course of study is offered, and what is expected in the manner of work. The modules at both schools need to come to understanding on what the course of study will include in order to outdo service diverse pupil organic structures. The modules of ITESO and Regis University spent considerable clip working together on placing the acquisition results for a collaborative MBA and what classs might be appropriate and the sum of clip it might take to finish the grades. In the instance of this partnership it was decided that each school would go on to offer classs that already exist. In add-on it was determined that each university ‘s pupils needed to finish the nucleus at the place school and so take five classs from the other school which would transcripted at both. ITESO teaches its classs in Spanish and Regis teaches its classs in English. For the NUIG coaction, each school became responsible for developing half of the course of study, so dialogues centered on what type of classs and content ought to be included and which school is responsible for which courses. This procedure took considerable clip and communications between the modules at each school. For most of the classs each school was able to accommodate its ain class work for the coaction. Regis University and the University of Ulster besides developed a theoretical account where each school developed half of the course of study ; nevertheless, it was decided to get down from abrasion. The construct included both modules working together on the content. This created important jobs in coming to understanding and probably besides contributed to the eventual expiration of the understanding. Production includes finding who and how classs will be written and produced for on-line presentation. It is imperative that the classs be offered on one platform so the understanding needs to specify which school hosts the plan and how the modules of the two schools participate with the development squad. Selling Determining the mark market is a important facet of the coaction. The other inquiry that must be asked and answered is who is responsible for making the selling and enlisting. In the instance of the Ulster coaction, the negotiated understanding stated that while both schools would make selling, Regis University would be responsible for most of the attempt. Ulster would host the classs on its WebCT platform. This proved to be a job since the Regis selling squad had no experience selling a plan in another state and had to play catch up. With both ITESO and NUIG each school markets to its ain market, which seems to be a better attack. This besides means that each school identifies who the mark market will be. In the instance of the Ulster coaction it was Regis University ‘s function to place the European market which proved to be much more hard than idea. Consideration must be given to making marketing surveies in the states to be involved. Such surveies need to include who are the possible pupils, their companies, whether the companies assist in paying the tuition, and what the tuition scope will be. If the coaction will include offering the degree plan beyond the two states, what are the planetary considerations. Agreement is needed between the spouses on what is to be marketed. Here once more cultural differences and regional differences play a portion. What may work in the U.S. is non needfully what will work in Latin America. One inquiry to inquire is whether the possible pupil population is ready and willing to take part in the plan. One premise is that a combined U.S./Latin American or U.S./European grade is something that will be sought after if offered. And if so are pupils willing to make so via the cyberspace. It appears that leting each spouse to make its ain selling is the best option for a figure of grounds. These include cognition of the local civilization and peoples, cognition of the types of selling that work best, and costs included. For illustration in the North American market making internet gross revenues may be a better attack while in Europe direct gross revenues may work better. Technology Technology is non merely the platform and class direction system to be used in offering the coaction. It besides includes cognizing what engineering the possible market has entree to, the set breadth in the states and sub-regions of states, costs of entree to the cyberspace, and even clip zone issues that affect use. Latin America has long used orbiter transmittal and wireless transmittal for certificate/diploma plans since these engineerings have been available. Switch overing to the cyberspace to convey educational plans is a new manner of making this, and the possible pupils need to hold entree to the engineering. And they need to desire to make so. One of the lessons obtained from the Ulster coaction was that the selling survey showed that pupils in northern Europe had ready entree to the cyberspace and to the engineering to entree it. At the same clip the farther South in Europe one went the less likely it was that possible pupils would entree the cyberspace either because of no involvement or because there was non ready entree. A inquiry for the partnership with ITESO is that one time it expands beyond the regional country served by ITESO, will possible pupils have the engineering and entree to take part. In some instances this may necessitate a committedness from the individual ‘s employer to supply entree through the corporate web. Legal and Governmental One frequently does non believe about or see the legal and governmental issues that can be involved in international coactions. This is a important facet of concern partnerships since international trade is governed by many regulations and ordinances. In most academic exchange plans there are few limitations even for double grades when merely one spouse really offers the grade. However, for the types of partnerships addressed by this paper, there are many considerations. First are accreditation issues. For Regis University, the Higher Learning Commission ( HLC ) of the North Central Association of Schools and Colleges ( NCA ) must at least reappraisal such coactions prior to their execution. For the spouses there may be a demand to hold the instruction ministry for the state review the undertaking and O.K. it. Such blessings are required if the grades are to be jointly awarded and the course of study is being shared by both schools. Issues include transcripting of credits and the grades, module makings, academic quality and appraisal, and many other concerns. There may be specific governmental limitations or regulations that must be met in each state. These may be academic constituents or things like pupil funding issues, travel limitations, visa demands if pupils travel between states, pecuniary policies, and contract regulations and ordinances. An interesting obstruction discovered after the partnership was ready to get down in Ireland was the find that Irish Constitution requires any grade offered by NUIG to be entirely awarded by the National University of Ireland. That created jobs since NUIG and Regis had planned on presenting a joint grade for the alumnus grade in package technology. The solution was to hold the pupils decide which state he/she wanted the grade from after which the pupil completed the finishing touch for that university. Besides the grade being awarded from either NUIG or Regis University, the schools jointly give the pupils a parchment that describes the joint venture and that the grade is recorded at each school. The University of Ulster did non hold such jobs since it is located in Northern Ireland which is portion of the United Kingdom. Ulster was authorized to find its ain grade awarding regulations and so it was all right to present a joint grade. However, Ulster believed there were other regulat ions that affected how the plan could be structured. In both instances outside judges needed to be involved at the terminal of each twelvemonth to reexamine pupil advancement and base on balls on whether the pupils met academic criterions. This was something new for Regis University. The stiff regulations in Northern Ireland likely besides contributed to the struggle that finally resulted in the plan being terminated. ITESO must run into the academic regulations in consequence in Mexico ; nevertheless, because of ITESO ‘s position with the instruction ministry, it is authorized to develop a coaction that includes jointly presenting grades. In add-on the Mexican higher instruction system operates in a mode more similar to the United States theoretical account. Another regulative issue involves standards used by the Association for the Advancement of Collegiate Schools of Business ( AACSB ) which frequently requires that both spouses be AACSB accredited. This lone affects concern and direction plans, but since that is the country where most of these ventures will happen the regulation is important. If pupils must go to the other location, in-migration regulations apply. This could be an obstruction for some. Faculty certificates and makings are besides something to see. The accreditation organic structures will interested how each spouse evaluates and assesses the certificates of the module involved. Regis University and its spouses have chosen to follow standards that province that each school accepts the credentialing procedure of the other school. Language Language is an of import factor. Even when the coaction is between an U.S. school and a European one ( including Ireland and the UK ) there are communicating jobs since idioms may be well different and difficult to understand. The issue of linguistic communication is even more of import when the partnership is between an U.S. university and one in Latin America. One inquiry to reply is whether all or some or none of the module demand to be bilingual to take part in the plan? This seems to hold been resolved with the Regis/ITESO coaction. Since the classs taught by ITESO are in Spanish and the 1s taught by Regis are taught in English, it was decided that being bi-lingual is non necessary. It is necessary of the pupils, nevertheless. Clarity is besides something to see in joint ventures. Given cultural and linguistic communication differences it is really of import to often corroborate that all parties are speaking about the same things. Even when there is a common linguistic communication, such as American English and British or Irish English, false blood relations ( i.e. disciplinas and Disciplines ; cursos and coursesaˆÂ ¦ etc. ) further complicate the affair. Frequent rewording and reappraisal aid to get the better of such jobs. As Canto and Hannah ( 2001 ) noted, linguistic communication can be an obstruction and must be considered. Language besides impacts how each spouse approaches selling. Leadership Issues Effective leading is a must in any coaction. The senior leadership/management at both spouses must be actively supportive of the venture. This includes a committedness for both administrative and fiscal support every bit good as supplying ample resources for module. Without such committedness it will be much more hard to implement and keep the coaction. However, such committedness can besides be a negative if each spouse does non affect the in-between direction leaders and module early on. One illustration of where leading ended up being a major job was the coaction between Regis University and the University of Ulster. The understanding to travel forward was made by the Vice Chancellor of Ulster and the petition to take part came from him without much work done to develop the relationship with the Faculty of Business and Management at Ulster. There was opposition to this new venture, particularly since the module believed they were already successful and were non certain they wanted to make this undertaking. Both schools besides appointed module leads who did non pass on good with each other which all excessively frequently met struggle and dissensions. On the other manus, the senior leading at both ITESO and NUIG were supportive from the beginning, but they knew that it was of import to construct the relationship foremost. In both instances the presidents or other senior leaders encouraged coaction and allowed for the relationship to develop. Faculty were besides empowered. This reduced the likeliness there would be opposition and struggle. Any clip there are alterations in leading and/or structural alterations to an establishment it may do it more hard for a fledgeling understanding to travel frontward. Any relationship such as those described in this paper is bound to ab initio be dependent in portion on the personal relationships established between the representatives of the establishments instead than between the establishments themselves. Merely with clip will be relationships become institutional instead than personal and even so it is incumbent on both establishments to proactively work to guarantee the on-going verve of the relationship. Leader support is critical to such enterprises since resources need to be committed and there is a likely demand to use fund long before any plan is really launched. Academic Outcomes Obviously academic quality is cardinal to any coaction. Students in such ventures want to be assured that the grade will be respected and will open doors. One ground pupils will desire to matriculate in such joint coactions is to acquire a place in an international organisation, whether that is in computing machine scientific discipline or concern. This takes on-going and uninterrupted work and coaction between the modules, appraisal of larning results, and guaranting quality experiences for pupils. Part of this includes working with the spouse. For illustration, in the coaction with NUIG, both schools committed to utilizing the outside reviewer theoretical account to yearly measure and measure pupil achievements. Training and go oning instruction for module is critical in such partnerships. Faculty from different states must work collaboratively. To make this these must be commitment to academic quality every bit good as quality and readily available pupil service and advising. Concluding Notes There are first-class grounds to look at organizing international coactions to offer joint grade plans. Such coaction ensures international Bridgess between states and civilizations. In a changing universe environment it may be even more of import that pupils and module, particularly at the alumnus degree, experience international civilizations and instruction. Much of what must be practiced externally in order to do such coactions work is no unlike that which should be in topographic point internally. Transparency, regard for one another, financial duty, realistic outlooks, quality control and a shared desire to function pupils and learn from one another surely will do such coactions more likely to win. It is besides of import to acknowledge that they may non all win and that larning from those that do n’t is merely more likely to do subsequent attempts, with the same or different spouses, more rewarding. Jesuit instruction attempts have reached out to the universe since shortly after Ignatius of Loyola brought together his little set of comrades. Ignatian humanitarianism and spiritualty tell us that it is of import to get down with a individual ‘s experiences and so to construct on them, to convey understanding among all peoples. International coactions to offer joint grade plans bring these Jesuit values together across boundary lines and across oceans. How to cite Academic Joint Ventures And Business Aspects Education Essay, Essay examples

Music and Emotion free essay sample

One major part of music day would be that a large portion of merchandise and food proceeds would go to hearty and the main aspect of Music Day would be a series of free concerts throughout the day all over the world. One of the best things about Music Day is the great possibilities it creates for new traditions. Each family would eventually begin their own new traditions on Music Day and there would be even more to look forward to. For example, it may be a good idea for a family to travel every year and pick a different show to go see together.Another family may decide to just stick around the local park every year, hear whatever bands are playing and have a picnic. Perhaps some more musically inclined families would gather gather and play their favorite tunes from dusk until dawn. Whatever the new traditions are they are guaranteed to be a whole lot of fun and something for families to pass from generation to generation. We will write a custom essay sample on Music and Emotion or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Tradition is important, it brings families and friends closer together and allows for them to bond and strengthen their relationships. The list of things to do on Music Day is endless.You can begin a family tradition, go along with others traditions, or just go with the flow every year and still have a great time. If a particular tradition catches on to enough people it may eventually become custom. Some things, such as exchanging gifts, would most likely become customary. The exchanging of gifts, mostly likely they would be gift that had something to do with music. Whether it be a musical instrument it self of just band shirts, posters, or cads. All types music related gifts could be given. This is just one more thing to look forward to on Music Day.This is another holiday that is all about giving, and not only in the way you may think. Someone can buy their girlfriend a CD in hopes that she will return the favor, but the giving Im talking about requires no reciprocation. A majority of the proceeds from Music Day merchandise sales and other activities that profit from the holiday would go straight to a Charity of the companies choices. This not only makes the holiday fun for everyone, but it has a good moral factor to it. Giving is the best gift, Im sure we have all heard this saying before, and theres a reason for that.It is. The benefits of a massive world wide donation to hundreds of different charities would make such a major impact that participators of Music Day wouldnt be able to help but feel good. At some point in time it may even be a part of Music Day to see how much we as a people can actually donate to charity. Trying to break previous records would be a fun way to raise for money for those who need it. This holiday would be a top holiday on anyones list. Who can argue With giving to charity? The last, but not least part of music day is the free concert series.Once a year on a summer day musicians from every country will tune their instruments and power up their amplifiers in preparation of Music Day. Everyone from popular artists to local bands would hit the stage and play just for the love of music. Free concerts available in just about every town for everyone to enjoy. This would give people a chance to go hear their favorite music artists. This opens up the idea of travel on Music Day. People and their families may want to go see a performer who is far away, and what better way to go on a small family vacation. An just hear it now, Hey Kids pack your bags were going to New York City for Music day. The key to this aspect of the holiday is for all the concerts to be free of charge, so that way everyone who wants to has the option to go listen to professional musicians. Whether it is the symphony, a bluegrass show, a solo pianists, the latest rap artist, or even a heavy metal band performances would be taking place all day so there is always something for everyone. Parents can go down to the jazz club, or check out an oldies concert while the kids see the local punk bands performing just down the block.This event would of course be massive and require a lot of planning and thought, but a holiday celebrating the joy music brings to our lives is well worth that. Plus Music Day would be a holiday everyone would look forward to. Going to concerts is fun and exciting. People pay big bucks to see professionals do their thing on stage and walk away feeling like they got the best out of their money. The free concerts would be gain public popularity in no time at all, and pretty soon people would be mounting down the days until Music Day.

Free Essays on Gang Activity

Gangs Activity Gangs are a violent reality that people have to deal with in today’s cities. What has made these groups come about? Why do kids feel that being in a gang is both an acceptable and prestigious way to live? The long range answer to these questions can only be speculated upon, but in the short term the answers are much easier to find. On the surface, gangs are a direct result of human beings personal wants and peer pressure. To determine how to effectively end gang violence we must find the way that these morals are given to the individual. Unfortunately, these can only be hypothesized. However, by looking at the way humans are influenced in society, I believe there is good evidence to point the blame at several institutions. These include the forces of media, the government, theatre, drugs and our economic system. On the surface gangs are caused by peer pressure and greed. Many teens in gangs will pressure peers into becoming part of a gang by making it all sound glamorous. Mone y is also an crucial factor. A kid (a 6-10 year old, who is not yet a member) is shown that he/she could make $200 to $400 for small part time gang jobs. Although these are important factors they are not strong enough to make kids do things that are strongly against their morals. One of the ways that kids morals are bent so that gang violence becomes more acceptable is the influence of television and movies. The average child spends more time at a TV than he/she spends in a classroom. Since nobody can completely turn off their minds, kids must be learning something while watching the TV. Very few hours of television watched by children are educational, so other ideas are being absorbed during this period of time. Many shows on television today are extremely violent and are often shown this from a gang’s perspective. A normal adult can see that this is showing how foully that gangs are living. However, to a child this portrays a violent gang e... Free Essays on Gang Activity Free Essays on Gang Activity Gangs Activity Gangs are a violent reality that people have to deal with in today’s cities. What has made these groups come about? Why do kids feel that being in a gang is both an acceptable and prestigious way to live? The long range answer to these questions can only be speculated upon, but in the short term the answers are much easier to find. On the surface, gangs are a direct result of human beings personal wants and peer pressure. To determine how to effectively end gang violence we must find the way that these morals are given to the individual. Unfortunately, these can only be hypothesized. However, by looking at the way humans are influenced in society, I believe there is good evidence to point the blame at several institutions. These include the forces of media, the government, theatre, drugs and our economic system. On the surface gangs are caused by peer pressure and greed. Many teens in gangs will pressure peers into becoming part of a gang by making it all sound glamorous. Mone y is also an crucial factor. A kid (a 6-10 year old, who is not yet a member) is shown that he/she could make $200 to $400 for small part time gang jobs. Although these are important factors they are not strong enough to make kids do things that are strongly against their morals. One of the ways that kids morals are bent so that gang violence becomes more acceptable is the influence of television and movies. The average child spends more time at a TV than he/she spends in a classroom. Since nobody can completely turn off their minds, kids must be learning something while watching the TV. Very few hours of television watched by children are educational, so other ideas are being absorbed during this period of time. Many shows on television today are extremely violent and are often shown this from a gang’s perspective. A normal adult can see that this is showing how foully that gangs are living. However, to a child this portrays a violent gang e...

5 Excellent Reasons Not to Fear the Garden Spider

5 Excellent Reasons Not to Fear the Garden Spider SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Have you noticed a large black and yellow spider making its home in your yard? This species is commonly known as the garden spider, and they are widespread throughout North America. Should you be concerned about you or your pet being bitten by a garden spider? Are garden spiders poisonous? On the contrary, garden spiders are a beneficial garden inhabit and are key to keeping insect populations down. Read this guide to learn more about this striking spider species and their unique characteristics. What Are Garden Spiders? To start, what are garden spiders? Is any spider you find wandering across your lawn a garden spider? When people talk about garden spiders, they’re referring to one species of spider. Its scientific name is Argiope aurantia, but it has many common names, including garden spider, black and yellow garden spider, yellow garden spider, writing spider, garden orb weaving spider, corn spider, zigzag spider and banded garden spider. The most distinctive feature of garden spiders are the black and yellow markings that often appear as bands or spots across their abdomen. Only female garden spiders have these colors though, along with a white or gray cephalothorax (front part of the body). Males are significantly smaller, with a thinner abdomen, and have a duller red-brown color. Females range from 0.75 to 1.1 inches (19 to 28mm) long, while males are about a quarter the size of females: 0.20 to 0.35 inches (5 to 9mm) long. Like all spider species, garden spiders have eight legs (in four pairs) and multiple small eyes. Because of their larger size and bright colors, female garden spiders are noticed much more often than male garden spiders. A female garden spider on the left and a male garden spider on the right. Source: Wikimedia Commons Where Do Garden Spiders Live? Black and yellow garden spiders have a wide range. They’re native to North America and are found in every US state except Alaska. Their range also extends to northern Central America and southern Canada. Garden spiders prefer to live near sunny, grassy areas that are out of the wind so that they can build their webs. They typically build their webs on tall plants or low buildings. This is why they are found so often in gardens! Tall grasses, shrubs, even the eaves of houses are all ideal places for garden spiders to live. These spiders are active during the day, and they can often be found on or near the webs they build. Are Garden Spiders Poisonous? If you see a garden spider, don’t worry about being bitten by it. Garden spiders aren’t aggressive, and they’ll leave you alone as long as you don’t bother or provoke them. In the rare cases that garden spiders do bite, you still don’t need to worry. Garden spider venom isn’t poisonous, and the bite will feel similar to a bee sting, with only minor pain and swelling. This is true for both humans and animals, so you don’t need to worry if your dog or other pet is bitten by one of these spiders. The only people who need to worry about getting bitten by garden spiders are those who are allergic to the spider’s venom, but this is very rare. If the bite or other parts of your body (such as your face) become very swollen or you have trouble breathing, call 9 or get to an emergency room immediately. Despite some articles explaining how to get rid of garden spiders, they are a harmless and often interesting addition to yards and gardens. In the next section we explain how garden spiders can even benefit you! 4 Key Black and Yellow Garden Spider Facts Want to know more about garden spiders? Below are some of the most important and interesting facts to know about this species. What Do Garden Spiders Eat? Not only are garden spiders harmless, they can help make your garden a more enjoyable place to be! Garden spiders eat insects, including many common pests like mosquitoes and wasps. Garden spiders trap their prey by spinning webs that the insects fly into. They don’t chase or hunt their prey (so any stories about garden spiders chasing after humans are false). Insects make up the majority of a garden spider’s diet, but they may also eat slightly larger prey, such as small lizards, if they get caught in the spiders’ webs. What Does a Garden Spider Web Look Like? Garden spiders are known for having large, intricate webs. The webs can be up to two feet across and are circular in shape. They have the classic spiral rings and radial lines that most people envision when they picture a spider web. Their webs often have a distinctive zigzag of silk running through the center, known as the stabilimentum. Female garden spiders typically build much larger webs than male spiders. Once the web is complete, the spider will often sit in the middle of it, waiting for prey to fly into the web. Garden spiders will use the same web for several months, maintaining it as needed each night. However, they may build new webs more often if they decide to move locations or the web is damaged. How Long Do Garden Spiders Live? Garden spiders live, on average, for one year, although some females can live for several years if they live in areas that don’t have hard frosts (a frequent killer of garden spiders). Garden spiders typically spend their entire lives in one area, so your yard may be the site of an entire garden spider life cycle! How Do Garden Spiders Reproduce? Garden spiders reproduce one to two times a year. The male garden spider dies immediately after mating and is sometimes eaten by the female. After mating, the female lays several thousand eggs which she covers in brown silk. The eggs hatch in the spring or fall, and the baby garden spiders (the vast majority of which won’t survive to adulthood) either stay in the area or get carried by the wind to new places. Summary: Garden Spider Even though they may look frightening, black and yellow garden spiders are actually a harmless, and sometimes even beneficial, addition to your yard. The garden spider, officially known as Argiope aurantia, is a widespread spider species that is nonaggressive. Even if a human or animal is bitten by one of these spiders, the reaction will only be similar to that of a bee sting, with minor swelling and pain. The garden spider web is often large and intricate, and it’s one of the most obvious signs that this spider is living in your yard. Female garden spiders are the only ones with the bold black and yellow coloring, and the species eats primarily insects, including many pests that frequent gardens. They play an important role in the ecosystem and keeping insect populations down, so there’s no need to worry if one of these spiders makes its home in your garden! What's Next? Looking for more spider facts? We dissect 4 popular camel spider myths here. Writing a research paper for school but not sure what to write about? Our guide to research paper topics has over 100 topics in ten categories so you can be sure to find the perfect topic for you. What's Vygotsky scaffolding? It actually has nothing to do with buildings! Learn everything you need to know about this important education term in our complete guide to Vygotsky scaffolding. Did you know that water has a very special density? Check out our guide to learn what the density of water is and how the density can change.

Cooperative system Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Cooperative system - Assignment Example Unless employees are satisfied, they can not display competence in their work, and this in turn, hinders their performance. Hence, they can not play their respective roles in achieving organizational objectives, thus lowering the effectiveness. Therefore, the two terms are relational. The statement of Bernard is extremely relevant to the contemporary business scenario. In the modern age of increased competition, business entrepreneurs are looking for ways to gain competitive advantage over their parallels in the market. In these circumstances, it is imperative that they understand the relation between effectiveness and efficiency, because unless they improve their efficiency, they can be outshined by more efficient competitors. The statement of Bernard is also, quite useful for a manager given it is fundamentally a manager’s responsibility to take measures to improve the efficiency of workers in an organization. In order to achieve the ultimate organizational goals, managers n eed to address the problem at the grass root level and improve the employees’ efficiency by addressing their individualistic concerns.

Introduction to international relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Introduction to international relations - Essay Example Neo-classical realism is a combination of both classical and neo realism that accepts both system level and state level natures. Liberalism is a state level theory that believes in the goodness of society. It argues that states try to create peace and cooperation. The last theory is constructivism that claims that the reason behind a particular state behavior is the unique features of the state. Admittedly, in order to understand the America-Vietnam relation, a mere state level theory will be gravely insufficient. The best way to understand the U.S- Vietnam relation throughout the history is to analyze it in the light of a system level theory as the relation was, and is, largely shaped by the international power equations, not because of the special features existed in the nature of America or Vietnam. In addition, neither America nor Vietnam showed even the slightest hint of benevolence, thus proving the unsuitability of constructivism. Thus, the theory that can best explain the rel ation is neo-realism, and a little bit of force can make classical realism too fit for explaining the relations, though inadequate. The tenets of neo-realism Neo-realism is a system level theory and it does not take the individual character of states into consideration. According to neo-realism, the reactions of the states are the results of fluctuations in the international system. As there is no international government that controls the actions of governments, there is total anarchy in the international sphere that makes states always vulnerable to the atrocities by others. Thus, states are always in the effort to gain power in order to protect themselves. However, a rise in power and influence results in more rivalry and more unrest. In this international arena, states have no way other than either defending themselves or attacking their rivals first. A look into history will prove that the American-Vietnam relation was mainly the result of the power movements in the internation al sphere which was mainly bipolar in nature. The America-Vietnam Relation A look into history proves that the American-Vietnam relation can be better understood in the light of neo-realist perspective. The neo-realism, similar to classical realism, argues that all states try to amass power, and that while seeking to increase their own power, they seek to reduce the power of their enemies too. In addition, it is argued in the theory that such states consider other states with power as their enemies. When there is equality of power, peace exists as the players are equal in resources. According neo-realism, the nature of the international system gives birth to power struggles among nations. As Glenn, Howlett, and Poore (2004, 22) state, since there is no world government that controls the movements of national governments, there is total anarchy, and the governments do everything they can to remain secure; hence, when there is a perceived threat to their sovereignty, states either att ack first hand or defend themselves using any possible means they have access to. Admittedly, a look into the America-Vietnam relations will prove that the American intervention in Vietnam was the result of the international power relations that existed at that time, and at that point of time, US had no other option other than the military action. Admittedly, the American interest in the Far East is as old as the National

Theories Pertaining To Aggression

Theories Pertaining To Aggression Aggression has been defined variously by different schools of thought. Behaviourists define it as any action that delivers noxious stimuli to another organism (Buss, 1961 cited in Shaffer, 1999). This definition considers accidental harmdoing as aggressive (Shaffer, 1999), and does not cater for aggressive acts that fail to deliver the intended effects to the victim. Yet an act perceived as aggression, such as slapping a person on the back, could actually be an act of affection in some cultures (Woods, 1992). Hence the definition was modified to include the intent of the act. Therefore, aggression is any action intended to harm or injure another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment (Baron Richardson, 1994; cited in Shaffer, 1999). Categories of Aggression Aggressive acts are often divided into two categories, namely hostile aggression and instrumental aggression (Shaffer, 1999). Hostile aggression. This refers to aggressive acts for which the perpetrators major goal is to harm or injure a victim (Shaffer, 1999). Instrumental aggression. This refers to aggressive acts for which the perpetrators major goal is to gain access to objects, space or privileges (Shaffer, 1999). Types/forms of aggression According to Smith (1999), aggression occurs in four major forms. These are (a) physical aggression (e.g. punching/hitting the victim with a blow, (b) verbal aggression (e.g. calling the victim names), (c) active aggression (e.g. refusing to shake hands with the victim), and (d) passive aggression (e.g. avoiding to talk with the victim). These are broadly classified as overt aggression and covert aggression (Shaffer, 1999). Overt aggression is used to mean open and observable; not secret or hidden, acts of aggression expressed physical, verbal or active form (Lewis, 2007). Covert aggression is secret or hidden; not openly practised as shown by passive acts (Lewis, 2007), for example, a learner dodges lessons to hurt the teacher. Other forms of aggression according to Taylor, Peplau and Sears (2006) are: Antisocial aggression. This refers to aggressive acts that violate commonly accepted social norms. For instance it is not socially acceptable to attack the parents of a thief for larceny committed by their child. Prosocial aggression. These are aggressive acts that support commonly accepted social norms. For example, it is acceptable in many countries to excute a serial murderer by firing squad. Sanctioned aggression. This is aggression that is permissible according to the norms of the individuals social group. For example certain cliques of adolescents consider fighting back as an acceptable act against offence by others. Chronic aggression This term is used to mean habitual acts of aggression by a given offender, or habitual suffering of aggressive acts by the same victim. Kinds of aggressive children Proactive aggressors. These are highly aggressive children who find aggressive acts easy to perform and who rely heavily on aggression as a means of solving social problems or achieving other personal objectives (Shaffer, 1999). Reactive aggressors. These are children who display high levels of hostile, retaliatory aggression because they overattribute hostile intents to others and cant control their anger long enough to seek nonaggressive solutions to social problems (Shaffer, 1999). Theories of aggression The various acts of aggression and their causes have been ventured into by different psychologists. These have formulated their explanations into theories which include the innate/biological theories, drive theories and the learning theories. Innate/Biological/Instinct theories These view aggression as a result of instinctive drives within the organism; the organism under the influence of these drives acts in order to fulfill a survival demand. These theories include the psychoanalytic theory, the evolutionary theory, and the genetic theory (Shaffer, 1999; and Smith, 1999). The Psychoanalytic theory. This was postulated by Sigmund Freud. He asserted that human behaviors are motivated by sexual and instinctive drives known as libido. He defined Libido as the energy derived from the Eros, or life instinct. The repression of libidinal urges is displayed as aggression. His work on childhood aggression, and the Oedipus Complex considered that a boy around age five begins to develop an intense sexual desire for his mother. He comes to regard her as the provider of food and love and thus wants to pursue an intimate, close relationship (Shaffer, 1999; and Smith, 1999). The desire for his mother causes the boy to reject and display aggression toward his father. The father is viewed as a competitive rival and the goal they both try to attain is the mothers affection. Thus, an internal conflict arises in the young boy. On one hand, he loves his father, but on the other, he wants him to essentially disappear, so that he can form an intimate relationship with his mother. The boy will develop an immense feeling of guilt over this tumultuous conflict and come to recognize the superiority of his father because of his size. This evokes fear in the boy and he will believe that by pursuing his mothers affection his father will want to hurt him, essentially by castrating him. To resolve the conflict, the boy learns to reject his mother as a love object and will eventually identify with his father. Thus, he comes to understand that an intimate relationship with his mother is essentially inappropriate (Shaffer, 1999; and Smith, 1999). Freud also developed the Electra Complex for the childhood aggression of girls. A girl around the age of five develops penis envy in attempts to relate to her father and rejects her mother. An internal conflict arises in the young girl, which is resolved after regarding her father as an inappropriate love object and ultimately identifying with her mother (Shaffer, 1999; and Smith, 1999). Freuds psychoanalytic theory demonstrates the idea that aggression is an innate personality characteristic common to all humans, and that behavior is motivated by sexual drives. Aggression in children is instinctual and should be resolved by adulthood. Therefore, over the course of development, after the child has rejected the opposite sex parent, he or she will enter a period of latency in which they commonly reject all boys or all girls. Once puberty is reached, attention shifts to the genital region as an area of pleasure. Men and women search for an appropriate member of the opposite sex to fulfill sexual urges. In individuals where the childhood conflicts have been successfully resolved, all aggression has been removed by adulthood in the pattern of development (Shaffer, 1999; and Smith, 1999). Later, Freud added the concept of Thanatos, or death instinct. Thanatos energy encourages destruction and death. In the conflict between Eros and Thanatos, some of the negative energy of the Thanatos is directed toward others, to prevent the self-destruction of the individual. Thus, Freud claimed that the displacement of negative energy of the Thanatos onto others is the basis of aggression (Smith, 1999). Strengths of the psychoanalytic theory. It is a profound theory in the history of social psychology. It generated more debate on the subject, and on aggression in particular, thus other parallel theories were aptly developed. It holds some truth, for instance, it is true that adolescents are characterized by seeking mates of the opposite sex. Weaknesses of the psychoanalytic theory. it incessantly dwells on motivation of sexual desires. It is based on hypotheses. There is no existing empirical evidence to support the theory. Evolutionary/Ethological theory Postulated by Konrad Lorenz, he looked at instinctual aggressiveness as a product of evolution. He essentially combined Freuds theory of aggression with Charles Darwins natural selection theory. In his interpretation, aggressiveness is beneficial and allows for the survival and success of populations of aggressive species since the strongest animals would eliminate weaker ones, and over the course of evolution, the result would be an ultimate stronger, healthier population (Smith, 1999). Strengths of the evolutionary theory. It offers offer a lot of information about the physical and neurobiological causes of aggressive acts. It pinpoints the anatomical and neurochemical roots of behavior. It has accumulated empirical evidence for biological causes of aggression. Weakness of the evolutionary theory. There is limited scientific evidence as yet in this area. Genetic theory. Common to some of the other biological theories is the proposition that aggression is the manifestation of a genetic or chemical influence. Empirical evidence shows that cerebral electrical stimulation of certain locations can induce or inhibit aggression. Observational studies on certain animals show that some breeds are more aggressive while others are naturally passive. Proponents of the genetic theory explain the presence or absence of aggression in particular breeds in terms of a single gene or interaction of genes (Smith, 1999). Studies that are more complete have shown that the presence or absence of particular chemicals and hormones affects aggression. For example, high levels of the hormone testosterone and neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine and noradrenalin produce higher levels of aggression in animals. In addition, serotonin has been used pharmacologically as an effective treatment in combating erratic aggression. Strengths of the genetic theory. It is a vastly developing field being supported by a lot of scientific evidence such as the human genome. It pinpoints genetic sources of aggression, which is consistent with observed trends in aggression. Weakness of the genetic theory. There is limited evidence as yet in this area. Drive theories These attribute aggression to an impulse created by an innate need. In other words the organism is driven to act aggressively by some imminent lack. The drive theories are the Frustration-aggression hypothesis, and the Aggressive Cues Hypothesis or Negative affect theory (Smith, 1999). Frustration-aggression hypothesis This was proposed by a group of researchers at Yale University, led by John Dollard. In this theory, frustration and aggression are linked in a cause and effect relationship. Frustration is the cause of aggression and aggression is the result of frustration. The early empirical evidence for this theory involved the examination of prison populations. A variety of studies were conducted to determine age, economic status and intelligence of inmates and to relate these variables to the amount of frustration of each individual prisoner. The results showed that the higher the frustration level, the more prone the person was to act aggressively or commit crime. Strength of the frustration-aggression hypothesis. It is supported by empirical evidence which involved the examination of prison populations. Weaknesses. Frustration is only one source of aggression, other contributing factors such as tension do exist. Aggressive Cues Hypothesis/ Negative Affect Theory. Leonard Berkowitz refuted that all acts of aggression are instigated by some kind of frustration. He thus modified the Frustration-Aggression hypothesis:- The presence of stimuli previously associated with aggression can evoke aggressive responses from an angry individual, or negative feelings and experiences are the main cause of anger and angry aggression (Smith, 1999). Aggressive interactions in this context include: 1. Thematic aggression which refers to action that was appropriate in the context of earlier event/play e.g. challenging an enemy. In this case themes refer to cues that may evoke certain actions. Aggressive themes such as soldiers instigate aggression, while neutral themes such as farms do not). 2. Inappropriate aggression, which is action that was clearly outside the context of the previous session (Shaffer, 1999). Sources of anger that may elicit aggressive behaviour include pain, frustration, loud noise, foul odors, crowding, sadness, and depression. The likelihood that an angry person will act aggressively depends on his or her interpretation of the motives of the people involved (Smith, 1999). Strength of the aggressive cues hypothesis. It refutes frustration as the sole cause of aggression Weakness of the aggressive cues hypothesis. It does not explicitly explain the maintenance of aggressive tendencies. Learning theories These theories propose that individuals aggressive tendencies are acquired through learning. This may be through purely behavioural or cognitive means or a combination of the two. The learning theories of aggression include Operant Conditioning, Social-learning theory, and Social Information Processing Theory. Operant Conditioning. This theory was developed through the experimental work of B. F. Skinner. According to the theory, if an aggressive act is positively or negatively reiforced, the aggressor is likely to repeat the behaviour in order to gain more rewards. In this way, the aggressive act becomes positively associated with the reward, which encourages the further display of aggression (Shaffer, 1999; and Matlin, 1992). Strength of the operant conditioning theory. It has empirical proof since it was developed through experiments. Weakness of the operant conditioning theory. It is too simplistic and ignores the acquisition of aggressive behaviour through internal processes. Social-learning theory. This was developed by Albert Bandura. It depicts human beings as rational creatures who aggress in order to satisfy important personal objectives, rather than as reactive creatures who are driven to aggress by internal factors such as instincts, frustrations or anger. It proposes that aggressive responses are acquired through two ways: 1. social modeling or social referencing and 2. direct experience. In social modeling, small children look to a familiar face or model to see how to react to a particular person or situation. This could be in real life or on television (TV). TV violence contributes to increased aggression in viewers. This exemplifies the idea that people are easily influenced by others behavior. By modeling the behaviors of TV, movie or video game characters, acts of aggression become increasingly more frequent and violent (Shaffer, 1999; Matlin, 1992; and Taylor, Peplau, Sears, 2006). Direct experience entails that a child who is reinforced for aggression will resort to aggression in the future. For instance, a child who overpowers others to grab their things will always do so to satisfy his or her demands (Shaffer, 1999). The theory asserts that aggressive behaviours are maintained through (a) self-reinforcement, in which the aggressive individual is proud of his or her harmful action because it is valuable to him or her, (b) ease in terminating others noxious behaviour, (c) tangible and intangible rewards, such as money or a medal for injuring or harming another, and (d) cliques that encourage aggressive solutions to conflicts (Shaffer, 1999). Strengths of the social learning theory. It is well supported by experimental evidence. It has been well documented. It is widely applicable in explaining human learning. Its theorists have developed it over time, adding more and more evidence in support. It appreciates the contribution of Cognitive factors in the acquisition and maintenance of learning in general, and aggression in particular. Weakness. It overstated instrumental strategy to overcome aggression. Social information processing theory. The theory was postulated by Kenneth Dodge. Accordingly, a childs response to harm done to him or her will depend on the outcome of six cognitive steps or processes: Encoding social cues. Here the child may ask himself or herself, How exactly was the damage done? Interpreting social cues. Here the child interprets the harmdoers reaction during the action to determine whether he or she meant it. Formulating social goals. In this step the child formulates a goal to resolve the incident. Generating problem-solving strategies. In order to achieve his or her goal, the child generates certain problem-solving strategies. Evaluating the likely effectiveness of strategies and selecting a response. The child weighs the pros and cons of each strategy and zeros on the best. Enacting a response. Here the child puts in action the selected response. These steps are influenced by the childs mental state, that is, his or her past social experiences, social expectancies, and knowledge of social rules. It is noteworthy that they occur in a rapid concession (Shaffer, 1999). In following these processes, reactive aggressors will have many negative experiences with teachers and peers; they become disliked, thereby reinforcing their expectancy that others are hostile to them (Juvonen, 2006; Mathews, Zeidner, Roberts, 2006; Hoy and Davis, 2006, and Matlin, 1992). They develop hostile attributional bias, which is the tendency to view harm done under ambiguous circumstances as having stemmed from a hostile intent on the part of the harmdoer (Shaffer, 1999). For proactive aggressors, aggressive solutions to problems yield positive outcomes and they feel capable of dominating their targets (Shaffer, 1999). Strength of the social information processing theory. It gives appropriate explanation of aggression cycle. Weaknesses of the social information processing theory. it does not appropriately give the causes of aggression. It does not give reasons for the different information processing biases of proactive and reactive aggressors. Developmental Trends in Aggression Aggression varies over time as the child grows. This variation is exhibited in the category of aggressive act, form of aggression, and frequency of aggression. The age groups considered in this paper are preprimary school age, primary school age and adolescents. Preprimary School Years Instrumental aggression emerges by the end of the first year as infants begin to quarrel with siblings and peers over toys and other possessions. Over the course of childhood, aggression becomes less physical and increasingly verbal. It becomes less instrumental and increasingly hostile or retaliatory in nature (Shaffer, 1999). Primary School Years The primary school child expresses a lot more overt than covert aggression. As the years advance, physical aggression and other forms of antisocial conduct such as disobedience continue to decline. This is because the child becomes more proficient at settling disputes more amicably verbally, since his or her language ability has increased. However, hostile aggression tends to increase, especially among boys. This is because 1. the intent of harmdoing is detected and the offended boy retaliates in a hostile manner, and 2. fighting back is sanctioned as normal reaction to harmdoing (Shaffer, 1999). Adolescence Many research findings (e.g. Furnham Heaven, 1999; James, 1998; Coie Dodge, 1998; Vitaro, Gendreau, Tremblay, Oligny, 1998; all cited in Mathews, Zeidner, Roberts, 2006) posit that overt aggression continues to decline in adolescence. Highly aggressive individuals can become truly violent with increased tendency of juvenile delinquency (Hoy, Davis, Pape, 2006). Most of these are undercontrolled children who are growing larger and stronger, and gaining greater access to weapons (Shaffer, 1999; and Hoy, Davis, Pape, 2006). Many adolescents turn to covert or indirect methods of aggression with age. Girls tend to exhibit social ostracism while boys express aggression through theft, truancy, substance abuse, malicious destruction of property, sexual misconduct. Hence adolescents become less overtly aggressive and turn to other forms of antisocial conduct to express their discontents (Shaffer, 1999; Matlin, 1992; and Hoy, Davis, Pape, 2006). Presently, there are some cases of aggression which seem to be on the rise amng adolescents and even adults (Taylor, Peplau Sears, 2006). These include group conflict, rape, date rape, sexual harassment, domestic violence, and chronic aggression. Victims of chronic aggression often have peculiar characteristics. The passive victims are generally disliked by peers, have low self-esteem, are physically weak, highly anxious, have low social self-regard, are nonassertive in communication, socially withdrawn, do not resist aggressive approaches against them, have demanding, aloof and unresponsive parents who allow little autonomy, foster passive, and nonassertive social behaviour. The boys are likely to have had very close, overprotective relationship with their mother, who encouraged them to voice fears, anxieties, and self-doubts as a means of attracting attention (Shaffer, 1999). The provocative victims are often oppositional, restless, hot-tempered, and irritate their peers, fight back (though unsuccessfully), display hostile attributional bias, have been physically abused or otherwise victimised at home, blame themselves for their victimization, have no friends or regular associates, and are vulnerable to adjustment problems, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, drop out of school (Shaffer, 1999). Stability of Aggression Aggression is a reasonably stable trait. Hostile youngsters are likely to make hostile adults (Shaffer, 1999). Howerver, related findings reflect group trends and do not imply that all highly aggressive children will remain highly aggressive over time (Shaffer, 1999; Taylor, Peplau Sears, 2006; and Juvonen, 2006). Theres a great deal of variability at individual level. Limited duration type of individuals are highly aggressive early in life and eventually outgrow it, while Late-onset types become more aggressive and even violent during adolescence after a relatively tranquil childhood (Shaffer, 1999; and Mathews, Zeidner, Roberts, 2006). The stability of aggression can be attributed to some home settings, and biological predispositions (Shaffer, 1999). Sex differences in aggression Boys and men are more overtly (i.e. physically and verbally) aggressive than girls and women are (Harris, 1992; Maccoby and Jacklin, 1974 both cited in Shaffer, 1999). Girls exhibit more relational or expressive aggression. Relational aggression refers to acts such as snubbing, exclusion, withdrawing acceptance, or spreading rumours that are aimed at damaging an adversarys self-esteem, friendships or social status (Shaffer, 1999). Reasons for Sex Difference in Aggression Three complementary viewpoints have been advanced to explain the differences in aggression between the sexes. These are 1. the biological viewpoint, 2. the social-learning viewpoint, and 3. the interactive viewpoint. The biological viewpoint. It has been observed that males are more aggressive than females in almost every society, and even among our near related species, such as the apses, the males are more aggressive than the females (Shaffer, 1999). Sex difference in aggression appears early (2-2.5 yrs). Male aggression is linked to male hormones e.g. testosterone. For example, Geen (1998) cited in Shaffer (1999) observed that participants who beat their opponents in a competition showed an increase in testosterone, while losers showed a decline. Hence higher concentrations of male sex hormones might be either a cause or an effect of oppositional (aggressive) behaviour. The social-learning viewpoint. Very young boys are not always more aggressive than girls (Shaffer, 1999). Groups dominated by boys are more likely than those dominated by girls to negotiate and share. This implies that there must be certain social influences that make boys more aggressive than girls. These include: The way parents play with their children. Parents tend to play rougher with boys than with girls. Differential parental reaction to childrens aggressive tendencies. Parents react more negatively to the aggressive behaviours of daughters than to those of boys. Nature of presents. Boys receive toys such as guns, tanks, soldiers, snakes, which are all cues of destruction as gifts. While girls are given babies, models and harmless implements as gifts. Preschool treatment of boys and girls. Aggression is considered a male trait, and an intolerable attribute among girls. Middle childhood treatment of boys and girls. Aggression provides boys with more tangible benefits and elicit less disapproval than among girls. Hence differences in aggression accrue from gender typing and gender differences in social learning (Juvonen, 2006; and Shaffer, 1999). The interactive viewpoint. Here, proponents believe that biological constitution of the individual interacts with social-environmental influences to promote sex differences in aggression (Shaffer, 1999). Female infants are observed to mature faster, talk sooner, be more sensitive to pain than male infants. On the other hand, male infants are larger, more muscular, sleep less, cry more, are more active, more irritable and harder to comfort. Hence a parent may readily play more vigorously with an active, muscular son than with a docile, less muscular daughter. Or the parents are impatient with irritable sons (Shaffer, 1999). This implies that a childs biological predispositions are likely to affect the behaviour of caregivers, which, in turn, will elicit certain reactions from the child and influence the activities and interests that the child is likely to display. Thus biological factors (genes) and social influences (societal norms and values, and family settings) are intertwined in complex ways and are both important contributors. Cultural and Subcultural Influences on Aggression Some societies and subcultures are more violent than others. Passive social orders that actively preach collectivist values, discourage fighting and other forms of interpersonal conflict, flee rather fight when invaded, are usually nonaggressive, for example, the Batwa of Uganda, Arapesh of New Guinea, Lepchas of Sikkim. Conversely those that emphasise individual survival, such as the Mundugumor (one time cannibals) of New Guinea, socialise both boys and girls to be aggressive (Shaffer, 1999). Children and adolescents from rural areas and lower socioeconomic strata exhibit more aggression and higher levels of delinquency than age-mates from higher socio economic strata. This can be explained thus: Parents of low socio economic status mainly rely on physical punishment, thus modelling aggression. They also resolve conflicts aggressively and encourage their children to do so. Their children may wish to satisfy certain needs which the parents cannot afford. Hence antisocial conduct becomes the only way of achieving their ends (Matlin, 1992; and Shaffer, 1999). Family Influences on Aggression Ones family and family setting might contribute to violent and aggressive behaviour through parental child-rearing practices, the childs behaviour, composition of the family, and the family climate. Parenting Style Authoritarian parents employ power assertion (especially physical punishment) to discipline children. This most likely raises aggressive children who will bully their playmates (Shaffer, 1999). Their common characteristics are being out-of-control children, having hostile attributional bias, defiance, lack of self-restraint, rejection by peers, criticism by teachers, founder academically, parents feel less invested, parents less inclined to monitor children, sexual misconduct, substance abuse, dropping out of school, running away from home (especially girls), engaging in prostitution (girls), pairing with antisocial partners, early marriage, and chronic aggression (Shaffer, 1999). Authoritative parents establish checks and balances, and yet give freedom for childs autonomy. Hence they raise well adjusted children (Shaffer, 1999). Permissive parents provide no control for aggressive urges. Undercontrolled children tend to score as aggressive and unconscientious in personality, and are more likely to be antisocial, delinquent and have antisocial personality disorder (Hoy, Davis, Pape, 2006). They are commonly characterized by fighting, sassing teachers, vandalism, drug and substance use, and general rule breaking. The Childs Behaviour The parenting style is somewhat influenced by the behaviour of the child. An aggressive child often elicits aggressive reactions from the parent, which in turn reinforces the childs aggressive tendencies (Shaffer, 1999). Composition of the Family In a single parent family, there is likelihood of disorganized gender roles. For example, a family headed by a mother alone is likely to raise children who are more aggressive than those raised in a family headed by both parents (Shaffer, 1999, Atkinson, Atkinson, Smith, and Bem, 1993). On the other hand, parents have differential treatment of children under their care. Their biological children are often favoured, while other children may be scolded. Hence the biological children may become proactive aggressors, while the others may become reactive aggressors. Family Climate Parental conflict causes distress in children. They may thus develop hostile, aggressive interactions with peers. The un-abused children in a rioting family climate learn that aggression pays off for the victor. Hence they learn to become proactive aggressors. The victimised children become distrustful and suspicious of other people, hence making reactive aggressors (Shaffer, 1999; and Atkinson, Atkinson, Smith, and Bem, 1993). Coercive home environments (a home in which family members often annoy one another and use aggressive or antisocial tactics as a method of coping with aversive experiences) raise children who are resistant to punishments. They fight coercion with countercoercion to command the attention of an adult who rarely offers praise or shows any signs of affection (Shaffer, 1999). These aggressive acts need to be controlled for effective functioning of society. Methods of Controlling Aggression and Other Antisocial Conducts The following methods advanced by Shaffer (1999), and Atkinson, Atkinson, Smith, and Bem (1993) can be helpful when used in combination to control aggression in society. Family therapy Teaching parents effective child-management techniques Life skills training to children Academic remediation for deviant cliques of poor performers. Cathartic technique. Encourage children to vent their anger or frustrations on inanimate objects. (c/o backfire) Create nonaggressive environments. Provide: No aggress